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STRIVING
FOR SUSTAINABILITY:
ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS AND
DEMOCRATIC INITIATIVES IN KERALA
SRIKUMAR
CHATTOPADHYAY
AND
RICHARD W. FRANKE
Published July 2006 by
Concept Publishing.
A/15–16, Commercial Block,
Tel: [from USA 011-91]
011-25351460 or 011-91-011-25351794
Fax: [from
E-mail: publishing@conceptpub.com
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CONTENTS
Abbreviations and Glossary
Preface and Acknowledgements
PART I
Kerala and the World Environmental Crisis
Introduction to Part
I
Chapter 1 The World Environmental Crisis and the Kerala
Experience
1.0 The Great Civilisational Change
1.1 The Kerala Development Model
1.2 Our Endangered Earth
1.3 Intensification, “Overshoot,” Depletion, and Collapse: A Theoretical Framework for Environmental Stress
1.4 The First Worldwide Depletion Crisis
1.5 The Limits to Growth Debate
1.6
1.7 Saving the Endangered Earth: Sustainable Development and Ecological Democracy
1.8 Physical Limits
1.9 Sociocultural Limits
1.10 Depletions, Inequality, and Violence
1.11 Economic Limits
1.12 The Strategy for Sustainable Development
1.13 Local Sustainability
1.14 Kerala’s Experiment in Local Planning for Sustainable Development
Chapter 2 Kerala’s Geographical Setting and Its
Environmental Resource Base
2.0 Coast,
2.1 Land Resources
2.2 Topography and Relief
2.3 Geology and Geomorphology
2.4 Soil
2.5 Water resources
2.6 Flora
2.7 Fauna
2.8 Resource Zones
Chapter 3 Macro and Micro Ecological Zones
3.0 Why Micro Matters
3.1 Macro Level Zones
3.2 Climatic Zones
3.3 Bioclimatic Zones
3.4 Agroclimatic Zones
3.5 Landscape Ecological
Zones
3.6 Diversity and Commonality in Kerala’s Land Use Patterns
3.7 Micro Level Zones
3.8 The Topo Sequence at Various Altitudes
Chapter 4 Causes of Concern: Land Use Changes
4.0 Spices, Traders, and Colonialists
4.1 Landuse in Theory and Practice
4.2 Landuse Change in Kerala – An Overview
4.3 Changes
in the
4.4 Causes of Deforestation in Kerala
4.5 Changes in Agriculture
4.6 Shifts in the Cropping Pattern: From Rice and Tapioca to Coconuts and Rubber
4.7 Conversion of Rice Lands
4.8 Causes of Conversion
4.9 Landuse Changes at the Micro Level
4.10 Cropping Intensification
4.11 Crop Production, Fallow and Fertiliser
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Chapter 5 Causes of Concern: Changes in Landscape Ecology
5.0 Climate, Wetlands, Soil, and Water
5.1 Changes in the Micro Climate
5.2 Changes in the Coastal Ecosystem
5.3 Changes in the Wetland Ecosystem
5.4 Soil Erosion
5.5 Infiltration, Surface Runoff, and Stream Flow
5.6 Landscape Factors Influencing Drainage Discharge
5.7 Changes in River Water Quality
5.8 Changes in the River Regime
5.9 Changes in the Groundwater Regime
5.10 The Decline in Water Harvesting
5.11 Groundwater Quality
5.12 Performance of Irrigation Projects
5.13 Reservoir Sedimentation
5.14 Fragmentation of Landholdings
5.15 Floods
5.16 Postscript to Chapter 5: The Great Tsunami of
Chapter 6 Why the Environment Is Changing
6.0 Global and Local Forces
6.1 Landuse and Landcover Change
6.2 Population
6.3 Settlement Pattern
6.4 Urbanization
6.5 Migration
6.6 Development of the Transportation Network
6.7 Rules and Acts
PART II
Kerala’s Initiatives for Sustainable Development: Employing the Power
of an Awakened People
Introduction to Part
II
Chapter 7 Movements to Defend Kerala’s Environment
7.1 The
7.2 The Monsoon Trawling Ban: Complexities of the Movement to Save Marine Resources
7.3 Muthanga: Assertion of Tribal Rights on
7.4 Plachimada: A People’s Struggle to Protect Their Water Supply from Multinational Corporate Misuse
Chapter 8 State Level Initiatives for Environmental Resource
Based Planning
8.0 Why Planning Changes Are Needed
8.1 The Macro Policy Framework of Local Self Government
8.2 Participatory Panchayat Resource Mapping (PRM) in Kerala
8.3 Resource Mapping in Mezhuveli Panchayat: A Case Study
8.4 Impact of the PRM Programme
Chapter 9 The People’s Campaign for the Ninth Plan of 1996–2001: A New Surge of Environmental Action
9.0 A Remarkable Experiment
9.1
9.2 Resource Management
9.3 Project Formulation
9.4 Plan Finalisation and Formulation of a Development Strategy
9.5 Plan Integration, Evaluation and the Voluntary Technical Corps
9.6 Identifying Ecozones
9.7 Project Implementation
9.8 The People’s Campaign and Sustainable Development
9.9 Significance of the People’s Campaign
Chapter 10 Local Initiatives: The Potential of Local
Democracy and Participation for
Sustainable Development
10.0 From People’s Campaign to Local Sustainability
10.1 People’s Biodiversity Registers: The Ernakulam District Campaign
10.2 Pond Management and Irrigation in Thathamangalam
10.3 The Karanila Traditional Fish Sharing System
10.4 Preparing a Watershed Master Plan: The Perambra Block Experiment
10.5 A Participatory Water Supply Project in Adat Grama Panchayat
10.6 Olavanna Panchayat’s Water Supply Initiative
10.7 The Microhydel Project at Upputhara
10.8 The Koyilandy Integrated Biological Mosquito Control Project
10.9 Water Self-Reliance: The Erimayur Jalanidhi Programme
10.10 Sustainable Vegetable Cultivation in Kanjikuzhy
10.11 Vegetables, Coconut, Fish, and Development – The Alappuzha Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project
10.12 Bringing It All Together: Micro-Enterprises for Sustainable Development
Chapter 11 Consciousness
Versus Collapse: Local Democracy and Our Endangered Earth
11.0 Past, Present and Future
11.1 Conceptual Models of Collapse
11.2 Conceptual Models of Sustainability
11.3 The Kerala Experience for a Sustainable World
11.4 Population
11.5 Social Justice, Inequality, Poverty and Sustainability
11.6 Behind Kerala’s Success: Activism and Participation
11.7 The Kerala Ecological Paradox
11.8 Consciousness in Theory and in Kerala, 363
11.9 Theoretical Issues: The Market Versus Sustainability, 364
11.10 Market or Capitalism? Marxist and Socialist Perspectives on Ecology, 366
11.11 Theoretical Issues: The Common Pool Resources Dilemma, 369
11.12 Political Structures for Sustainability
11.13 Do
11.14 Scaling Up Worldwide from Community Based Sustainability, 383
11.15 Environmental Stress and Local Democracy
References
Tables
Table 2.1 Distribution of Area Within
Altitudinal Zones,
Table 2.2
Table 2.3 1963–93 Average Kerala Rainfall in Millimeters by District
Table 2.4 Status of Ponds in Five Selected Panchayats – 1992
Table 2.5 Concentration Index for Selected Crops in Kerala – 1991
Table 3.1 Agro-climatic Zones in Kerala
Table 3.2 Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Parks in Kerala
Table 3.3 Micro Ecozones in Onchiyam Panchayat, Kerala
Table 4.1 Distribution of Area in Hectares and Percents Under Different Landuse Categories in Kerala in
1960–61 and 1992–93
Table 4.2 Area under Various Landuse or Land Covers in Kerala in 1989
Table 4.3
Table 4.4 Changes in Cropping Patterns in Kerala, 1957–1997Table 4.5 Variations in Landuse in
Udumbanoor Panchayat, 1911 to 1991: Areas as Percent of Total
Table 4.6 Land Acquisition by Deforestation or by Purchase by Settlers in Idukki District, 1950 to 1980
Table 4.7 Landuse Change,
Table 5.1 Infiltration and Runoff Under Different Landuse
Types in Kerala
Table 5.2 Landuse Type and Physical and
Chemical Characteristics of the
Table 5.3 Types of Groundwater Development in Kerala
Table 5.4 Types of Ponds in Thiruvananthapuram in 1997
Table 5.5 Reservoir Sedimentation in
Selected Reservoirs in
Table 5.6 Percents of Operational Holdings by Size in Kerala 1985–86 and 1990–91
Table 6.1 Area Trends in Landuse in Idukki District Kerala 1913 to 1992
Table 6.2 Kerala’s Population by District 1981 to 2001
Table 6.3 Urban Population and Urban Area in Kerala by Decades 1901 to 2001
Table 6.4 Urban Population of Kerala by District as Percent of Total Population – 1981 to 2001
Table 6.5 Percent of Area in Kerala under Urban Administration by District – 1961 to 2001
Table 6.6 Types of Roads by Length in Kerala – 1981 and 1997
Table 8.1 Three Approaches to Planning
Table 8.2 Activities in People’s Resource Mapping
Table 8.3 Resource Maps and Their Utility
Table 8.4 Existing Surface Water Sources in Mezhuveli Panchayat – 1991
Table 8.5 Area and Productivity of Selected Crops in Mezhuveli Panchayat in 1991 Compared to
Table 9.1 Major Phases of the Kerala People’s Campaign for Democratic Decentralization
Table 9.2 Details of the Training Programme: Kerala 9th Plan Campaign 1996
Table 9.3 Percent of Voluntary Technical Corps and Key Resource Persons at Various Educational Levels
Table 9.4 Change in Crop Intensity After Watershed Interventions
Table 9.5 Change in Fertiliser Consumption in Kilograms per Hectare after Watershed Interventions
Table 10.1 Rare Tree Species in Ellanthu Kavu, Kanjikuzhy Panchayat
Figures
Figure 1.1 Location of Kerala (map)
Figure
Figure 2.1 Administrative Divisions of Kerala Showing Districts
Figure 2.2 Geographic Zones of Kerala (map)
Figure 2.3 Monthly Distribution of Rainfall in Selected Stations of Kerala (graph)
Figure 2.4 Drainage Pattern in Kerala (map)
Figure 2.5
Figure 2.6 Forest Vegetation along Rugged Slope in Kerala (photo)
Figure 2.7 Forest Types in Kerala (map)
Figure 3.1 Landscape Based Ecozones of Kerala (map)
Figure 3.2 Biosphere Reserves and Wildlife
Sanctuaries in the
Figure 3.3 Ecozones of Onchiyam Gram Panchayat (map)
Figure 4.1 Temporal Variations of Area under Food and Non-food Crops (graph)
Figure 4.2 Temporal Variations of Area under Selected Crops and Wasteland (graph)
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2 The Thanneermukkom Barrage (photo)
Figure 5.3 The Amboori Landslide (photo)
Figure 5.4 Variations of selected water quality parameters under different land use classes (graph)
Figure 5.5 Rainfall departure graph (Graph)
Figure 5.6 Damaged house due to Tsunami (photo)
Figure 5.7 Beach Near Tsunami Affected Area Showing Coconut Trees Planted Too Close to the
Shore and Lack of Proper Biological Barrier to Sea Intrusion (photo)
Figure 6.1 Growth of population in Kerala, 1901–2001(graph)
Figure 6.2 Distribution of Population Density in Kerala by Districts-2001 (map)
Figure 6.3 Districtwise Growth of Urban Population in Kerala (map)
Figure 6.4 Spatial Trend of Internal Migration in Kerala (map)
Figure 6.5 Deforestation and Road Network in Kerala (map)
Figure 6.6 Location of Places Referred in the Text of Part II from Chapter 7 to 11
Figure 7.1
Figure 10.1 Alappuzha-Cherthala area (map)
Figure 10.2 Man Weaving a Coir Mat in the Mararikulam Area (photo)
Figure 10.3 Voluntary Training programme in progress (photo)
Figure 10.4 Portion of a Landuse Map Prepared by Volunteers in Kanjikuzhy panchayat (map)
Figure 10.5 Woman Volunteer Explains Resource Map to Government Official (photo)
Figure 10.6 Ellanthu kavu Sacred Grove in Kanjikuzhy panchayat (photo)
Boxes
Box 7.1 The Plachimada Declaration of
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