Can the Atlantic Salmon be Introduced Back into the Passaic River?
A Preliminary Evaluation of Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons and Their Likely Impact on Salmo salar
Kevin Olsen, Fall 2005, Environmental Modeling
The Environmental Problem
The Passaic River is tidal between its outlet at the southern end of Newark Bay and the Dundee Dam, near Botany Mills in the city of Passaic. There are another river four miles until the Great Falls of the Passaic which are 18 meters wide with a drop of 21 meters.
A suggestion has been made that a fish ladder be constructed at the Dundee Dam. Such a ladder would, in theory at least, allow a breeding population of Atlantic Salmon or some other anadromous fish to be established between the dam and the Great Falls. New Jersey's Division of Fish and Wildlife has stocked Northern Pike in several upstream locations and both large and smallmouth bass are found in the river as far downstream as Dundee Dam. As of 2005, there are some 30 species of fish in the river (http://www.passaicriver.com).
There is little doubt that the passage of the Clean Water Act, improved waste treatment, and better control of storm water runoff has made the water in this section of the Passaic River cleaner. Continued cleanup efforts will make the river capable of supporting a wider range of fish stocks. Historically this section of the river has been among the most polluted in the country. Prior to the construction of treatment plants the city of Paterson discharged its sewer wastes into the Passaic. The textile industry in that city and in Passaic used the river for waste disposal and some older residents recall knowing what color dyes were in use from the color of the river water. The extent of contamination from other industries is still largely unknown.
Dr. Kirk Barrett of the Passaic River Institute has suggested a modeling problem where the effects of pollutants on the Atlantic Salmon in this section of river be examined. Such a model would be immensely valuable in making the decision whether it was worthwhile to construct the fish ladder.
Historical Background.
Paterson was the first planned industrial city in the United States. Founded in 1791, the promoters were drawn to the waterpower provided by the Great Falls. Before the upstream communities began withdrawing water, the flow over the falls was measured at 9,000,000 gallons per day.(1) The early industries included the Roger's Locomotive Works, Colt Repeating Arms, and numerous textile mills with ancillary dye works.
Paterson's industries and its large population also made the Passaic River one of the nation's most polluted waterways. In 1851, Jersey City selected a site on the Passaic near the present day city of Kearny for its municipal water intake. At the time, the Passaic was described as a "pleasant, limpid stream."(1) But by 1874 it was recognized potable water was no longer obtainable from the Passaic River anywhere below the city of Paterson. The water leaving that city was described as "dark as beer" and was said to contain the sewage of 150,000 persons, oil, coal tar, and the waste chemicals from dye works, textile mills, hat factories, and paper mills. (1)
In 1894 reporters from the New York Times reported seeing black streaks in the water from the dye works, and a "shimmering, opalescent substance." This slick was identified as "sludge acid" a byproduct of producing gas from coal. (2)
The Passaic River's polluted state and objectionable stench lead to one of the first major sewer projects in New Jersey. The Trunk Line Sewer was built between 1912 and 1924. It linked 22 municipalities along the Passaic River and drained an area of 80 square miles.(3) While this project mitigated some of the biological wastes, the numerous factories along the river continued to discharge into the stream.
The Impact to Fisheries in the Twenty-first Century
The key question this model addresses is whether the accumulated pollutants in the river sediments will have an adverse impact on the Atlantic Salmon today and in the future. For the sake of simplicity, only one major pollutant will be examined, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). Additional models will be needed to assess the potential impact of other pollutants such as chlorinated pesticides, PCB's, and heavy metals.
Some polyaromatic hydrocarbons are formed naturally but human activities are estimated to introduce some 230,000 metric tons annually into the aquatic environment.(4) Incomplete combustion of coal, petroleum, and waste incineration, are major anthropogenic sources. The use and transport of oil also release these materials into the environment. Typically, petroleum products have a higher percentage of low molecular weight PAHs (two or three rings) while combustion generates four and five ring molecules.(5) C2-Napthalenes are most often considered to be derived from petroleum and are thus used to used to identify either anthropogenic pollution or seepage from natural sources. (6)
Researchers have studied the effects of PAH exposure on a number of fish species(6,7,8), shellfish(5), and to green algae(4).
Seruto cites the following from adverse effects from a number of other authors in response anthropogenic PAH's, carcinogenicity, hepatic lesions, precocious and uninhibited gonadal development, alteration in egg size, inhibited spawning, morphological deformities, reduced egg and larval viability.(7)
In studies of the Horneyhead Turbot (Pleuronichthys verticalis), Roy has observed that an enhanced hepatic activity can be indicative of PAH overall bioavailability. But this was only at concentrations higher than typically found in urbanized sediments. Serum estradiol concentrations were reduced following the sediment-only exposures at the lowest PAH concentration (12ug/gram) of the 16 PAHs identified by the EPA as priority pollutants (Table 2). (9) (Estradiol is associated with the ovaries, placenta, and adrenal glands.)
In studies of the male California Halibut (Paralichthys californicus) Seruto, found no significant differences in plasma steroid concentrations, but reduced estradiol levels at exposure to only 1.92 ug/gram sediments. The California Halibut is a type of flounder and lives most of its life pressed against the sea floor.(10) Biochemical and physiological metrics failed to demonstrate dose response relationships. This makes it very hard to establish, at least for California Halibut, estimating the sediment PAH concentrations that will elicit a biomarker response. Except for some reduced steroid concentrations, no adverse reproductive effects were noted. More research is underway to determine if this is a species specific response or to the mixture of naturally occurring PAH's that were used in the study.
The wreck of the oil tanker M.V. Braer off the coast of Shetland, Scotland in January of 1993 gave R.M. Stagg and colleagues a chance to study the effects of PAH pollution on farmed Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) and the Common Dab (Limanda limanda). The ship's entire cargo of 84,700 tonnes of Gulfaks crude oil was dispersed through out the water column and much of it eventually sank into the sediments. (11)
In the case of salmon, polyaromatics in the sediments were reported as being "unlikely to be directly bioavailable to fish." Concentrations in the sediments were as high as 8000 ppm in certain areas. Among the farmed salmon in coastal fish pens, levels of enzymatic biomarker response and hepatic pathology rose in response to the spill. But within eight weeks, they had returned to normal.(8) The other fish studied, the Common Dab showed longer biological response to the spill but there was no clear correlation between sediment PAH concentrations and observed pathologies.(8)
Turkey's METU Institute of Marine Sciences noted a seasonal increase in coastal PAH concentrations in winter which was attributed to sea water temperatures. This was immediately followed by an increase in the fish liver concentrations of PAHs. But within two months and warmer temperatures the in vivo concentrations went back down.(12)
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has identified and is pursuing research on the following areas (13):
(1) Relative to the PAH contamination in water and sediments, what PAH levels are expected in
early life stages (ELS) of fish?
(2) What levels and wavelengths of UV-light are ELS fish subject to in natural systems?
(3) How are effects in ELS fish quantitatively related to PAH accumulation and UV-exposure?
(4) How can the expected cumulative effects to ELS fish of PAH mixtures in natural systems be
quantified?
It would seem that it is still very hard to establish a concentration value, above which fish will be adversely affected by PAH's in bottom sediments. One problem identified by the EPA is the difficulty of comparing laboratory toxicological measurements to what fish might experience in the more complex their much more complex natural habitats. (13) All the literature cited here supports the contention that lifestyles, feeding habits, and species-specific physiological responses must all be taken into consideration when setting limits of PAH exposure for any species of fish.
Another problem is that higher nitrate concentrations increase the toxic effects of PAH exposure. Nitrate ions change the reactivity of PAHs by controlling the degree to which they will form of hydroxylated radicals. (4)
While it may seem surprising, the Atlantic Salmon would probably do well if introduced into the Passaic River near Paterson. Gravel covered spawning beds will have to be close enough to the Great Falls to have a supply of oxygen-rich, rapidly moving water. Provided that suitable spawning ground is available, the presence of PAH's, and possibly other pollutants in sediments are not likely to have an adverse effect. This optimistic conclusion should not be extrapolated to any and all fish likely to be introduced into the river, especially those species which spend a large percentage of their lives burrowing or feeding on the bottom.
Properties of PAH's
Before introducing the model, some general comments about PAH chemistry and the Atlantic Salmon are in order. In any study of PAH chemistry it must be remembered that these molecules are a very diverse set of chemical compounds. (Tables 1 & 2) While sharing many important similarities, they also have different physical, chemical, and toxilogical properties. For example, from their studies on the green algae Scenedesmus subspicatus, Djomo et al. states that for this plant, the toxicity of any one PAH will depend its physiochemical properties. These include such things as aqueous solubility, the octanol-water partition coefficient, and the coefficient of volatilization. Naphthalene, phenanthrene, and anthracene with low octanol-water partition coefficients and low coefficients of volatilization are less toxic than Benzo(a)pyrene with the highest octanol-water partition coefficient.(4)
.
PAHs are not readily soluble in water. They tend to adhere to particulate matter. PAHs stuck to small particles may be found in the surface micro layer, but those adhering to larger particles will become part of the sediments. PAH concentrations in sediments are linked to the organic matter content.
Those PAH molecules with low aqueous solubilities and high affinity for carbon rich particulates will typically be found associated with high levels of organic carbon. In arctic waters phytoplankton die, sink, and are incorporated in the sediments. Areas where this occurs are enriched in benzo[a]pyrene. This compound is less common in sediments with a high percentage of small particles, i.e. <63 um. However there is not always a clear correlation between the enrichment by a particular PAH molecule, organic carbon, and grain size.(6)
Perylene (a five ring molecule with molecular formula C20H12) is naturally formed by microbial action in both fresh and salt waters. In lake sediments where there were high percentages of organic material, the perylene concentrations also increase. Conversely, in sediments were there would not have been sufficient organic matter for microbes to form this molecule, the presence of perylene suggested a distant source.(15)
In both soil and water, microorganisms breakdown PAHs but the process can take weeks or months. They can also breakdown through reactions with sunlight or other chemicals. Unfortunately, many products of these reactions tend to be more carcinogenic than the parent compounds. (14)
Table 1 Examples of the Aquatic Fate for Some Common PAH Molecules:
Despite a strong family resemblance, the fate of various PAH's will vary widely and this makes constructing a model very difficult. The following environmental summaries were provided on the Spectrum Chemicals web site: http://www.speclab.com/compound/m610.htm These three compounds are presented as examples:
Acenaphthene: The biotransformation half-lives range from 20 hours to 24.8 days for zero suspended solids . Not expected to undergo hydrolysis or bioconcentrate in environmental waters. Should undergo direct photolysis in sunlit waters . Acenaphthene will partition from the water column to organic matter contained in sediments and suspended solids.
A Henry's Law constant of 1.55X10-4 atm-cu m/mole at 25 deg C suggests volatilization of acenaphthene from environmental waters may be important . Based on this Henry's Law Constant, the volatilization half-life from a model river has been estimated to be 11 hr. The volatilization half-life from an model pond, which considers the effect of adsorption, has been estimated to be about 39 days.
Acenaphthylene May partition from the water column to organic matter contained in sediments and suspended solids.
A Henry's Law constant of 1.13X10-5 atm-cu m/mole at 25 deg C suggests volatilization of acenaphthylene from environmental waters may be important. The volatilization half-lives from a model river and a model pond, the later considers the effect of adsorption, have been estimated to be 4 and 184 days, respectively.
Anthracene In water will strongly adsorb to sediment and particulate matter, but will not hydrolyze. It may bioconcentrate in species which lack microsomal oxidase. Subject to direct photolysis near the surface and may be subject to significant biodegradation. May be subjected to significant evaporation with an estimated range of half-lives of 4.3-5.9 days predicted for evaporation from a river 1 m deep, flowing at 1 m/sec with a wind velocity of 3 m/sec.
Fluoranthene Mostly associated with particulate matter in both air and water. Will rapidly be absorped onto sediments where it is stable for decades or more. Will bioaccumulate. When not absorbed onto particulate matter will degrade by photolysis.
The Atlantic Salmon
The Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) is an anadromous fish related to trout, whitefish, and graylings. Like all members of the Family Salmonidae they spawn in fresh water and spend at least a portion of their lives at sea. Two feeding grounds have been identified, one off Greenland and the other off Norway. Unlike the Pacific Salmon which dies after spawning, the Atlantic Salmon returns to the sea and may make three to four annual spawning runs in the course of its lifetime. All salmon require moving water and have high oxygen demands.(16)
Spawning runs occur in the autumn, the exact time varies from river to river and the with distance that must be traveled to the breeding grounds. Early spawners may appear in the spring with the frequency of runs slacking off in the warm summer months and picking up again in the early autumn. Spawning takes place from October through December. The female digs a nest at the spawning site and deposits her eggs in it before moving upstream to dig another. The males move in almost immediately to spread their milt over the next while the act of digging the upstream nest helps to cover the previous nest. The eggs hatch during the following spring and will begin to hunt for their own food after a month. The young fish remain in fresh water an average of two to three years before traveling to the sea. Like trout, salmon feed mainly on aquatic insects in both their juvenile and adult stages. (16)
Modeling PAH Distribution in the Passaic River
Lower molecular weight PAH (acenaphene, napthalene, fluorene) are rapidly lost from the water column through volatilization and microbial degradation. Higher weight compounds Benzo[a]anthracene and Benzo[a]pyrene are more susceptible photo-oxidation and removal by sedimentation. For these reasons when present in the water column, PAH's are indicative of recent or chronic pollution. (17)
Kirso et al. reported that the distribution of PAH's in the Gulf of Finland are as follows, pyrene is the predominant component in water and algae (up to 90%), in soft sediments and in the upper layers of the bottom sediments (0 to -3 cm), perylene, benzo[b]fluanthene, and coronene (up to 20%) dominate among four, five, and six nuclear PAH's.(18)
In a steady state situation, the inputs of PAH into the Passaic River system will equal the outflow. Considering only the atmospheric flux and ignoring those PAH bonded to particles flowing over the Great Falls we have:
Atm conc. volitile fraction fraction fraction fraction
flux = in river +
[ returned to + scavenged by +
photo-degraded + biodegraded]
PAH water the atmosphere
particles
Much of the literature devoted to PAH contamination in the environment focuses only on those components that will accumulate in the water column. While photo-degradation and biodegradation are important, these processes can be retarded when the molecules are bound to particles (see table 1). For this reason, these two processes will not be included in the present model.
conc volatile fraction fraction
in river = flux - [ returned to + scavenged by ]
water the atmosphere particles
The solubilities of PAH are low in water, in the picogram/liter range. (19)
For the value of the atmospheric flux, we can assume an average annual value of 1050 micrograms per square meter-year. This was what was measured for Lake Michigan in 1996. The concentration of PAH in the Lake Michigan sediments ranged from 1300 to 1500 ng/grams.(15)
Unless noted otherwise, the values listed in Table 2 will be used in the model calculations.
Table 2, US EPA Priority Pollutant PAHs
PAH Compounds used in EPA Method 610. Dimensionless Henry's Law Constant (Schnoor)
Log K(ow) (US EPA http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/itm/ITM/ch9.htm and Schnoor)
CAS # Name
83329 Acenaphthene, H = ?, log K (octanol - water) = 3.9
208968 Acenaphthylene, H = ?, log K (octanol - water) = 4.1
120127 Anthracene, H = ?, log K (octanol - water) = 4.3
56553 Benzo(a)anthracene, H = 2.4e-4, log K (octanol - water) = 5.91
50328 Benzo(a)pyrene, H = 4.9e-5, log K (octanol - water) = 6.50
205992 Benzo(b)fluoranthene, H = ?, log K (octanol - water) = 6.6
191242 Benzo(ghi)perylene, H = ?, log K (octanol - water) = 7.0
207089 Benzo(k)fluoranthene H = ?, log K (octanol - water) = 6.8
218019 Chrysene, H = ?, log K (octanol - water) = 5.6
53703 Dibenzo(a,h)anthracene, H = ?, log K (octanol - water) = 6.0
206440 Fluoranthene, H = ?, log K (octanol - water) = 5.5
86737 Fluorene, H = ?, log K (octanol - water) = 4.4
193395 Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene, H = ?, log K (octanol - water) = 7.7
91203 Naphthalene, H = 4.9e-2, log K (octanol - water) =3.36
85018 Phenanthrene, H = 1.5e-3, log K (octanol - water) = 4.57
129000 Pyrene, H = ?, log K (octanol - water) = 4.9
Estimation of the fraction returned to the atmosphere by volatilization:
The volatile fraction that will be returned to atmosphere consists mostly of Napthalene, acenapthene, and fluorene. (4) Unfortunately, the Henry's Law Constant is different for every compound and must be either determined experimentally or found in the literature. Once they are known we can plug them into the following equations:
Partial pressure Henry's Law molar concentration
in the atmosphere = constant X in solution
The Henry's Law constant can be converted to a dimensionless number such that:
PPM air
Henry's Law K = ----------------------------- (Schnoor p. 332)
(dimensionless) PPM water
To use this equation, let us assume that 100% of the PAH atmospheric flux is transferred to the river and that a certain amount is returned to the air so that in one cubic meter of water:
ug returned to the air
Henry's Law K = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(dimensionless) total mg in water from atm flux - ug returned to the air
In one day:
1050 micrograms year 2.877 micrograms
------------------------------- X ---------------- = ------------------------------------
square meter - year 365 days square meter - day
For napthalene
ug returned to air
0.049 = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(2.877)(fraction napthalene in flux) - (ug returned to air)
For the moment, we will assume that napthalene is about 80% of the total, this estimate is based on recent mass spectroscopy experiments at MSU.
ug returned to air
0.049 = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(2.877)(0.80) - (mg returned to air)
ug returned to air = 0.1075
2.877 - 0.1075 = 2.769 ug of PAH in each cubic meter of the Passaic River each day.
The remaining PAH components will have to be calculated based on similar values. Note that this calculation does not take into account any resistance encountered by the molecule when passing from the aqueous to gas phases.
PAH Fraction Scavenged by Particles
The fraction scavenged by particles can be determined based on the octanol - water partition coefficient.
First the K(ow) must be converted to K(oc), Schnoor gives the following method(20):
Log K(oc) = 1.00 Log K(ow) - 0.21
Secondly, the K(oc) values must be converted to K(p):
K(p) = (decimal fraction of organic carbon present in particulate matter) K(oc)
Lastly,
ppm in solids
K(p) = ----------------------------
ppm in water
This can be rearranged to the form:
r = K(p) C
Where r = mass of chemical sorbed per mass of particulate matter in mg/kg
C = concentration in water ppm.
For the present, we will assume that the decimal fraction of organic carbon in particulate matter is 100%. So that
K(p) = K(oc)
Knowing C from our atmospheric flux and estimating the K(p) from the K(ow) values:
r = (Log K(ow) - 0.21) (conc in water)
We have determined in the previous section that after allowing for the Napthalene returned to the air, there is 2.769 ug of PAH in each cubic meter of the Passaic River each day.
2.769 ug cubic meter 1 mg
---------------- X ------------------- X ------------------------- = 2.769e-6 ppm
cubic meter 1000 liters 1000 ug
Finally we can predict the partition between molecules in the water column and sorbed onto suspended solids.
PPM sorbed to the solid phase
K(p) = ---------------------------------------------------
PPM in the aqueous phase
average K(ow) from data provided by Schnoor, page 337 = 5.09
K(p) = 3.14
PPM in solid phase
3.14 = ---------------------------------------------------------
2.769e-6 ppm - PPM in solid phase
PPM in solid phase = 2.10e-6
In other words, there will be 2.10e-6 mg of PAH's sorbed onto every Kg of total suspended solids in this section of the river. In every liter of river water we can expect to find 6.69e-7 mg of PAH, or 669 picograms not absorbed to particles. This material might be directly bioavialable to fish via the gills and mouth.
Note that in this calculation it was assumed that there would be an excess of sorption sites for the PAH's. Because of the PAH's great affinity for PAH's, there have been several attempts in recent years to create more direct means of estimating the partition between PAH's in aqueous and solid phases.
Turner et al. reports that a partition coefficient has a linear relationship to suspended particle concentrations.
KD = A (suspended particle concentration) - B
A & B are constants that are site and compound specific. Ideally they should be determined for each system but their values can be estimated with sufficient accuracy to be used in modeling calculations. (21)
Doong and Chang used solid phase micro extraction technology to measure partitioning between the solid phase and hydrophobic organic molecules. The measured partition coefficients (22) ranged from 3.02 to 5.69 on poly-dimethylsiloxane and 3.37 to 5.62 on polyacrylate respectively. They found that the log of the partition coefficient on the solid phase in the extraction column (Log Kspme) and the log of the octanol water coefficient (Log Kow) have a linear relationship with correlations better than 0.96.
Fate and Transport of the PAH's Sorbed onto Particles.
This topic has been extensively studied. The particles containing PAH's will do one of two things, sink, or continue to be transported through the upper portions of the water column. Generally speaking, enough will sink so that the interface layer between the water column and bottom sediments can be enriched anywhere from 23 to 57%. This is especially problematic because the PAH's found in this region are tend to be the most carcinogenic fraction. (18) Salmon and other fish that remain in the upper portions of the water column are relatively safe from direct contact with PAH containing particles.
Bioturbation will cause many of the particles to be resuspended. We can anticipate that in this region of the Passaic, water flows will be high enough to transport these resuspended particles downstream.
For the Atlantic Salmon however, the greatest threat will be particles containing PAH's that settle onto the spawning beds. These gravel beds will also provide habitat for the young salmon.
To calculate the mass of particles that will fall onto the spawning beds:
d Mass
-------------- = (total mass of particles settling per square meter)
dt
The faster the river is flowing, the greater the number of particles that will not reach the spawning beds because they are carried downstream instead.
We have already calculated that there will be 2.10e-6 mg of PAH's sorbed onto every Kg of total suspended solids in this section of the river. We can use the Stoke's equation to predict the settling velocity for the sizes of the particles found in this section of river and predict the total mass flux:
d Mass w
-------------- = (Mass ----------- )
dt Z
Where w = settling velocity and Z = water depth.
Settling velocity can be predicted by the following equation:
Fall velocity gravitational constant density density sediment
in feet per = 8.64 ------------------------------------------------------------- ( of - of ) (particle ) ^2
second (18) (absolute viscosity of water) particle water diameter
Graphical
Representation of settling velocity as a function of particle diameter and
density
The horizontal distances that the particles must travel if they are to remain clear of the spawning beds are very long. The typical female will excavate multiple nests each up to 3 meters long.
Without a detailed knowledge of the size fractions within the total suspended solids in the Passaic River, it is impossible to estimate the amount of material that will settle on the bottom.
The University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS) has published a simplified form of Stoke's Law for use when calculating the dynamics of a settling basin. The equation assumes that the particles are smooth and perfectly spherical. (23):
Fall velocity = (0.00135) [(diameter in microns)^2] (specific gravity - 1)
Fall velocity is given in inches per minute
Taking 2.6 as the specific gravity of quartz, this formula predicts a fall velocity of 12.7 for a 75-micron effective diameter particle. Silt with a typical diameter of 0.002 mm, will settle at a rate of 4.6e-5 inches per minute.
However we are more interested in organic particles since these will scavenge the PAH molecules. Some typical biotic particles and their diameters are given in Table 3.
Table 3. Typical Diameters of Some Biotic Particles
All values given in Microns
Algae 5 - 10
Giardia (flagellates) 9 - 21
Giardia (ovoid cystes) 6 - 10
Viruses 0.004 - 0.1
Source: USEPA www.epa.gov/safewater/mdbp/pdf/turbidity/chap_08.pdf
Assuming a density only slightly greater than water, (1.1 g/ml), the settling velocities will range from 1.4e-4 inches per minute for a typical virus to 0.0135 inches per minute for larger algae.
Thus there is a wide range of potential settling velocities for these particles. They are sufficiently low that we might hope they will remain suspended and not fall onto the spawning beds. Bioturbation will also help resuspend those particles that settle in the spawning beds.
Improvements to the Model
This model can only be considered a very preliminary look at the PAH's in the Passaic River. It has very limited value until the values of the total suspended solids, water depths, and flow rates can be measured. (The USGS does not operate a gauging station in this section of the river) The first and most important improvement to the model must be to break the PAH flux into its components and estimate the concentration of each one. Once this is done, the effects of photo degradation and bio degradation can be included where appropriate. A more detailed model will also take into account PAH's bound to particles and coming into the stream over the Great Falls.
Conclusions
This model is not sufficiently developed to predict whether PAH pollution will have an adverse effect on the Atlantic Salmon in the Passaic River. The literature on PAHs and Atlantic Salmon is encouraging. The PAHs bound to particles are not easily bioavailable to this species. Only some 670 picograms per liter might be directly bioavailable.
Notes
1. "Poisonous Water, How it is Conveyed to Jersey City", New York Times, August 4, 1874, Page 5.
2. "Jersey City's Vile Water, Full of Sludge Acid, Factory Washings, and Sewage", New York Times, August 5, 1894, Page 17.
3. Stuart Galishoff, "The Passaic Valley Trunk Sewer" New Jersey History, Volume 88, 1970, Pages 197-214.
4. J. E. Djomo , A. Dauta , V. Ferrier , J. F. Narbonne , A. Monkiedje , T. Njine and P. Garrigues, "Toxic effects of some major polyaromatic hydrocarbons found in crude oil and aquatic sediments on Scenedesmus subspicatus" Water Research, Volume 38, Issue 7, April 2004, Pages 1817-1821
5. Thomas P. O'Connor, "National Distribution of chemical concentations in mussels and oysters in the USA", Marine Environmental Research, Volume 53, Issue 2, March 2002, Pages 117-143
6. Kari Stange, Jarle Klungsoyr, "Organiochlorine contaminants in fish and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments from the Barents Sea", ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 54, 1997, Pages 318-322.
7. Cherlynn Seruto, Yelena Sapozhnikova and Daniel Schlenk, "Evaluation of the relationships between biochemical endpoints of PAH exposure and physiological endpoints of reproduction in male California Halibut (Paralichthys californicus) exposed to sediments from a natural oil seep," Marine Environmental Research, Volume 60, Issue 4, October 2005, Pages 454-465.
8. R. M. Stagg, C. Robinson, A. M. Mcintosh, C. F. Moffat and D. W. Bruno, "The effects of the ÔBraerÕ oil spill, Shetland Isles, Scotland, on P4501A in fanned Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and the common dab (Limanda limanda)," Marine Environmental Research, Volume 46, Issues 1-5, July-December 1998, Pages 301-306.
9. Luke A. Roy, Scott Steinert, Steve M. Bay, Darrin Greenstein, Yelena Sapozhnikova, Ola Bawardi, Ira Leifer and Daniel Schlenk, "Biochemical effects of petroleum exposure in hornyhead turbot (Pleuronichthys verticalis) exposed to a gradient of sediments collected from a natural petroleum seep in CA, USA," Aquatic Toxicology, Volume 65, Issue 2, 29 October 2003, Pages 159-169.
10. Edward C. Migdalski and George S. Fichter, The Fresh and Salt Water Fishes of the World, Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York, 1976, Page 290.
11. 1993 Shetland Bird Report, Shetland Bird Club, Sumburgh Lighthouse, Shetland ZE3 9JN.
12. Imagelkay SalImagehImagelu, Cemel Saydam, AyImageen Yilmaz, Long term impact of dispersed petroleum hydrocarbons (DDPH) in the Gulf of Iskenderun, METU Institute of Marine Sciences, PK 28, Erdemli, Imagecel, Turkey.
13. US EPA Mid-Continent Ecology Division, Research Project Summary Risks to Fish Populations from Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons in Natural Systems.
www.epa.gov/med/Res_Summaries/risks_to_fish_populations_from_polyaromatic_hydrocarbons.pdf
14. Gwynne Lyons, Briefing on Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), World Wide Fund For Nature , March 1997.
15. Roberto Quiroz, Peter Popp, Roberto Urrutia, Coretta Bauer, Alberto Araneda, Hanns-Christian Treutler and Ricardo Barra, "PAH fluxes in the Laja Lake of south central Chile Andes over the last 50 years: Evidence from a dated sediment core," Science of The Total Environment, Volume 349, October 2005, Pages 150-160.
16. Migdalski, Page 114.
17. Trina A. Mastran, Andrea M. Dietrich, Daniel L. Gallagher and Thomas J. Grizzard, "Distribution of polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the water column and sediments of a drinking water reservoir with respect to boating activity", Water Research, Volume 28, Issue 11, November 1994, Pages 2353-2366.
18. U. Kirso, L. Paalme, M. Voll, E. Urbas and N. Irha, "Accumulation of carcinogenic hydrocarbons at the sediment-water interface," Marine Chemistry, Volume 30, 1990, Pages 337-341.
19. U. Kirso, L. Paalme, M. Voll, E. Urbas and N. Irha, "Distribution of the persistant organic pollutants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, between water, sediments, and biomass," Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management, Volume 4, 2001, Pages 151-163.
20. Jerald L. Schnoor, Environmental Modeling: Fate of Chemicals in Water, Air and Soil, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1996, Page 338.
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