Course goals:

-  Understand the elements, social importance, and literary merit of drama from the Classical period to appx. the present

- Investigate the relationship of violence to performance theory and drama in performance

- Learn to write about drama from Western and non-Western traditions




Student Introduction

Interview, in groups of three, one of your classmates and prepare to report the following information to the rest of the class:

Farthest travels











Group work: A) Define PLAY, DRAMA, PERFORMANCE, or THEATER and consider the significance of your category. B) Why are there so many names for one thing?




















Play

Drama

Performance

Theater/Theatre

Used in English since 893, spiking after Hamlet

Latin and Greek in origin, but not used until 18th century; rel. to melodrama

Not in use until late 16th century

Earliest known use in English 14th century

1. A literary work written for performance on the stage; a drama. The performance of such a work.

2. Activity engaged in for enjoyment or recreation.

3. Fun or jesting: It was all done in play.


OED: A literary composition in the form of dialogue, adapted for performance on the stage with appropriate action, costume, and scenery, in imitation of real events; a dramatic piece, a drama. (ca. 1440)

From drân = "do, act"

1. A prose or verse composition, especially one telling a serious story, that is intended for representation by actors impersonating the characters and performing the dialogue and action.

2. Theatrical plays of a particular kind or period: Elizabethan drama.

3. The art or practice of writing or producing dramatic works.


1. The act of performing or the state of being performed.

   2. The act or style of performing a work or role before an audience.

   3. The way in which someone or something functions: The pilot rated the airplane's performance in high winds.

   4. A presentation, especially a theatrical one, before an audience.

   5. Something performed; an accomplishment.

   6. Linguistics. One's actual use of language in actual situations.


Greek theatron = "seeing place"


1. A building, room, or outdoor structure for the presentation of plays, films, or other dramatic performances.

   2. A room with tiers of seats used for lectures or demonstrations: an operating theater at a medical school.

   3. a) Dramatic literature or its performance; drama. b) The milieu of actors and playwrights.

   4. A large geographic area in which military operations are coordinated: the European theater during World War II.










Free write for 10 minutes about the following topic: What is tragedy?


Xenophanes (570 B.C.E.), Greek philosopher: “A tragedy, then, is the imitation of an action that is serious and also, as having magnitude, complete in itself; in language with pleasurable accessories, each kind brought in separately in the parts of the work; in a dramatic, not in a narrative form; with incidents arousing pity and fear, wherewith to accomplish its catharsis of such emotions.”


Jean Racine (1639–1699), French playwright: “A tragedy need not have blood and death: It’s enough ... that it all be filled with that majestic sadness that is the pleasure of tragedy.”


Horace Walpole (1717–1797), British author: “The world is a comedy to those that think, a tragedy to those who feel.”


Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822), British poet: “Tragedy delights by affording a shadow of the pleasure which exists in pain.”


D.H. (David Herbert) Lawrence (1885–1930), British author: “Tragedy looks to me like man in love with his own defeat. Which is only a sloppy way of being in love with yourself.”


Susanne K. Langer (1895–1985), U.S. philosopher: “Tragedy dramatizes human life as potentiality and fulfillment. Its virtual future, or Destiny, is therefore quite different from that created in comedy.”




Review of L. 1



Play

Drama

Performance

Theater

"Primary" definition

- script or action

- could include music

- live story

- Dramatic literature

- Genre that evokes emotion

- Acting, putting on a show

Place where the audience sees performance

non-theatrical connotation

to play

Overly emotional

How well one does something

Theater of war


Tragedy

- Emotion: sadness, fear, hopelessness, sympathy for the innocent

- Death, morbid

- No happy end

- Should we sympathize with morally ambiguous tragic victims?

- Purpose: to expose flaws (in the human condition) and offer solutions



Review of L. 2


Intro. to Greek Theater

- Important to civic, religious life of Athens (polis)

- Women may have been part of the audience (normally at home in the oikos)

- Only small number of plays still extant

Aristotelian Oppositions

- Good / bad

- High / low culture

- Noble / vulgar

- Pity / fear

- Absolute truth / imitation (mimesis)

Aristotle’s Ideal Play

- The 3 Unities: time, place, and plot (beg., middle, and end)

- Complex plot

- Plot over character development

- “Poetic” (rhythmic, iambic)

- Well ordered, balanced visual representation

- Known in centuries afterwards as the "well made play"


Review of L. 3


Violence

- attempted infanticide / child abuse

- murder

- suicide

- self mutilation

- incest

‡ How do different characters deal with guilt?


Student Questions:

1. In what ways does (or does not) Oedipus understand the meaning of being himself?

2. What is the role of fate in the tragedy? Do you we have the power to change our own destiny (even if we ‘know’ it)? Does knowledge of prophecies make them come true? Could Oedipus have thwarted his fate?

3. Why does Oedipus desire to know the truth so badly?

4. Why does it take Oedipus so long to find out the truth of himself (denial)?

5. Why does Oedipus scratch out his eyes instead of defending himself?

6. Why does Jocasta fail to tell Oedipus about her first son?

7. How does Jocasta’s role contrast with the actual role of women in ancient Athens?

8. Does he understand why this happened?

‡ Who is to blame for this tragedy: the gods’ control of fate, Oedipus for ignoring seemingly obvious facts, Jocasta, the messenger who failed to kill Oedipus in the first place?

Oedipus’ Character

- impulsive

- Thinks of himself as transparent, working for people

- self-absorbed

- hubris (pride)

- = lame foot

- = pun on Greek verb ‘I know’ (oida)

Correction: Promises to exile and make the murder’s life painful (Creon: “Banish the man, or pay back blood with blood,”l. 114; “Oedipus: “let that man drag out / his life in agony,” l. 292-3)



Review of L. 4


Oedipus and Pedagogy

- Fate: unavoidable?

- Secrets: hidden and transparent

- Kingship: rational and conflict

- The complex paradox of being human?


Recognition and Reversal in Oedipus

1) Laius’ murder

2) Real son of Jocasta

3) Infanticide


Theater Review Assignment


Review L. 5

Student Questions

1. What is the role of the gods in the play? How is it similar/different to Oedipus?

2. How does Medea identify herself as a woman? Is Medea a “feminist” figure? What common human experiences does she display?

3. Are Medea’s children victims or saved?

4. Does Medea’s wisdom lead to her downfall?

5. Is justice served in the end by Medea’s revenge? What is “justice”?

6. Who is the “tragic hero” of the play—Jason or Medea? Is Jason at fault for the tragedy or Medea?

7. What role does passionate love play in the tragedy?



A Feminist play?


Yes

- Medea laments patriarchal society’s treatment of women


No

- Women = vindictive, vengeful


Medea’s criminal record


- Murdered her own brother to facilitate elopement w/Jason

- Cf. 165

- Brutal death (dismemberment)

- Killed father Pelias by tricking her sisters into doing it, cf. 470-75


NB: An argumentative paper would argue for one side and show how the other side is wrong . . .


Reason vs. fury (thymos) and passion


Unit I Essays


L. 8

Free write for 5 to 10 minutes on the idea of the theater.  Some questions that you might (but do not have to) consider are: What is its purpose? Does it have a good or bad effect on society? Some of these quotes might also inspire you.


1. “All the world ’s a stage, / And all the men and women merely players. / They have their exits and their entrances; / And one man in his time plays many parts, / His acts being seven ages.”


Shakespeare, As You Like It (II.vii)

2. “The world ’s a theatre, the earth a stage / Which God and Nature do with actors fill.”

Thomas Heywood (1574?–1641), Apology for Actors (1612).


3. “The theatre is the involuntary reflex of the ideas of the crowd.”

Sarah Bernhardt (1845–1923), French actor. The Art of the Theatre, ch. 3 (1924).


4. “The theatre, for all its artifices, depicts life in a sense more truly than history, because the medium has a kindred movement to that of real life, though an artificial setting and form.”

George Santayana (1863–1952), U.S. philosopher, poet. Skepticism and the Animal Mind, p. 102.


Review of L. 8

What is theater?

- Entertainment

- Political

- Culture / society

- Spectators / live

- Pedagogical


Kenneth Branagh’s Hamlet (1996)

- Film and not theater: glimpses into past described by words, close ups


Sir Philip Sidney, Apology for Poetry (1598)


- Art transcends mere reflection of nature to offer an ideal vision of the world and humanity


- Dramatists responsible for guiding human spirit (morals)


- Drama should follow Aristotelian precepts of unified time and place (Neoclassicism)


- Drama should be true to laws of poesy rather than history, free to tell new tales or to reframe old ones to suit contemporary needs


Luis Montrose, “Anatomies of Playing” (1996)


Pro Theater

- Money

- Entertainment

- Pedagogical value: virtue

- History / national consciousness


Con Theater

- Politically dangerous

- Religiously subversive

- Disturbs social hierarchy

- Public space: prostitutes, vices, violence, “contagion”


Review of L. 9


Mirroring and Doubling

- Hamlet / Claudius

- Fortinbras / Old Norway

- Laertes / Polonius


Acting in Hamlet

- Hamlet acts mad

- Ophelia acts out Hamlet

- Polonius deceives everyone but the king

- The players arrive


Hamlet / Oedipus

- Go crazy

- Royalty

- Seek to find fathers’ murders

- In search of the truth and have trouble recognizing it

- Problem with mothers’ sexuality


Review of L. 10


Student Questions:

1. Why does Hamlet ‘lie’ to Ophelia?

2. Why doesn’t Hamlet confide in his mother?

3. Is Gertrude in league with Claudius or trying to protect Hamlet?

4. Why does Ophelia reject Hamlet?

5. What incites Hamlet to pierce the arras?

6. Why does Claudius decide to send Hamlet to England—to kill him? When does he decide this?

7. Is the ghost ‘real’ or just a figment of Hamlet’s imagination?

8. What’s the role of words and action in the play? How do they conflict?

9. What is the role of madness in the play?



Review of L. 11--Highlights


Hamlet as King?

- Elective process

- Fit for kingship?

- Concluding scene: designates Fortinbras


Madness

- Acts as a contagion

- Ophelia // Hamlet

- Result of grief


Hamlet and Morals

- Greed, ignorance

- Loss of family

- Adultery

- Life

- Religion

- Loyalty, respect


Review of L. 12


Dryden and Neoclassicism

- good or great characters

- beg, mid., end

- pity and fear

- time, place, and action


Aphra Behn, “The Rover: or, Banished Cavaliers”

- Cavaliers, Willmore = Charles II’s men

- First major female playwright

- Early Modern era (Restoration)

- Comedy: romance, mistaken identity, marriage a la mode

- Main conflict = marriage market



Review of L. 13


1. What is the function of the carnival for the male figures? (2.1.1-3/346; 2.1.20) How does it compare to the women’s use of the carnival?


2. Angellica and Blunt are sort of outside the ‘main action’ of the play. What is their function? What morals do they reflect as counter examples? 2.1.145/347; 2.1.275/349; 2.2.55-75/350; 2.2.90/350; 3.2/354-55; 5.1.325/369


3. Why are there traditionally 2 couples in comedy? What do Willmore/Hellena and Belville/Florinda teach the audience in juxtaposition? 3.1.95-240/353


 4. Florinda’s independent choices in love lead her to some compromising positions. What do you think Behn wants to teach her audience through these scenes? 4.3.150/364-65; 5.1.28/366


Question of Feminism in Behn’s Play:


- How do women negotiate for power?

- In what ways do women in the play gain equal rights (to property, choice of destiny) as men?

- Depends on ‘definition’

- In 17th and 18th century: gaining respect as subjects (rather than as objects or dogs)



Review of L. 14


Student Questions


1.    Why might actresses have come to the English stage?


2.    Why were French actresses allowed before 1660?

3.    Would male actors be able to do justice to female

roles?

4.    Why were women doing less business outside the

stage just as they came to perform on it?

5.    Why did drama become more sexually explicit when

actresses arrived?

6.    Are the Restoration plays really more sexually

explicit than other ones (justifying the argument that

women’s presence was needed more than ever before)?

7.    Why should gender impersonation be more intolerable

than other forms of artificiality?

8.    How is acting related to concepts of women’s role

in society?


Reasons for Women Coming to English Stage

- Shortage of trained boys

- Authenticity / naturalism

- Eliminate obscenity

- France


Effects

- Writing for specific actresses

- More sexually explicit plays

- Public women‡ whores and actresses


Key words

- Woman Question

- Proto-feminism

- Virago

- Objectivity



Review of L. 17


Main points about Ibsen:

- Known as the father of Naturalism and modern drama

- Ambiguous relationship to feminism

- A Doll House (or, A Doll Home) is based on Laura Kieler’s own story, which she sent to Ibsen



Synthesis of Discussion:


- Nora is paradoxical, playing to and rebelling against stereotypes of the nineteenth century woman.

- The setting of the play is realistic, signifies the Helmers’ financial situation, and perhaps symbolizes Nora’s confinement from the outside world.

- Disguise, forgery, and counterfeiting have overt and symbolic meaning in the play.



Nora

Torvald

K. Linde

Dr. Rank

Krogstad

Character

naive, childish, spendthrift

moral police, paternal, stern

desperate for love, bitter

genteel, loyal, refined

devious, sneaky

Motivation

Hide her debt from Helmer and pay it back

control, reputation

survival after husband's death

in love w/Nora, lonely, dying

reputation



Review of L. 18


Student Questions

Ibsen

Did Krogstad and Mrs. Linde have a past relationship?


Why are Kristine and Nora different ages?


What is the role of Mrs. Linde?


Is Nora just putting on an act? How is she able to

switch from being naïve to deciding to leave her

family?


Emile Zola, “Naturalism in the Theatre” (1878)


With whom does Zola have a quarrel? (591 bottom)


What’s wrong with romanticism in theater? How does

Naturalism solve the problem?


What is internal technique?


Romantic vs. Naturalist Drama


- Romantic: Anachronistic, fictional, melodramatic, artificial (Victor Hugo)

- Naturalist: Present, “true” or non-fictional, method acting, genuine emotions


Synthesis of Interpretive Discussion


The “Woman Question”

- 19th century: Woman has her main roles as wife, mother, and sister; will allowing women to vote and work make her become “unfeminine,” thus abandoning her roles as wife and mother?

- Feminism in 19th-century = allowing women the right to vote and work/take part in the “public sphere”

- Is Ibsen’s place “feminist,” or does it portray 19th-century fears about what happens when women become independent?


Family Tragedies

- Nora: Father dies; she leaves family

- Torvald Helmer: Illness / estrangement from wife

- Rank: Suffers from father’s syphilis and then dies as a result

- Krogstad: Wife died / seeking to overcome unnamed “indiscretion” to help sons’ standing

- Christine Linde: Sick mother and responsible for brothers / marries for money / husband dies alongside loveless marriage

- Anne Marie: Abandoned illegitimate daughter


Parenthood

- Compromise

- Sacrifice

- Obligation

- Lack of feeling between mother and father, parent and child


Outside the stage

- Nora’s village

- Letterbox

- Bank

- Rank, Linde, and Krogstad’s houses/apartments

- Orphanages

- Italy / Capri

- Stenborg’s apartment

- Fjords


Review of L. 19


Thirty Years War = 1618-1648

- War between Catholic and Protestant countries

- Series of declared and undeclared wars

- House of Austria/Hapsburgs and Ferdinand II of Spain vs. various Protestant principalities and their allies (Swedes, Danish, Dutch, and Finnish)

- Also economic control: German civil war; princes take over different principalities in the name of Protestantism or Catholicism

- Protestantism: takes power away from the Catholic Church and puts it in the hands of the Protestants

- ‡ A war that doesn’t make sense, but Brecht’s point is that war never makes sense

- Written during WWII


Marxism, Socialism, and Communism

- Means of production are owned by the community/people

- Private property is abolished

- View of history = clash between opposing economic forces, which dehumanize the proletariat


Mother Courage and Her Children

- Mother Courage’s “courage:” Willing to risk all to get a profit

- Her children: Swiss Cheese dies because she haggles too long

- Critique of War



Review of L. 20


War and $

- Soldiers
- Profiteers

“Alienation Effect”

- Verfremdungseffekt / V-Effekt
- Tragic character: audience

Kattrin


- Gesture / sign
- Conscience / compassion


Natural world


- children
- people/men
- faith
- emotion
- death

Constructed

- War
- Cart
- Flag
- Religion
- Collateral damage


Review of L. 21


Brecht’s Epic Theater

- Reveals the clash of economic forces on history

- Projecting documents to contradict characters (screens, techn.) and narrate story

- Actors remain a bit distanced from their performance / don’t wholly inhabit the character (“alienation effect”)

- Ibsen via Brecht: Audience sees Nora forge a check; screens announce action before it happens


Purpose of Brechtian Theater

- To teach through entertainment

- To teach through absence of morals

- To provoke audience to self-reflection


Review of L. 22


Theater of cruelty

-    trance

-    no masterpieces

-    gesture

-    actor_hieroglyphs

-    ritual

-    confrontation w/dark side: famine, war, epidemic

-    vs. elite, bourgeois idea of culture


vs. Brecht?

-    unconscious / Surrealism

-    confront spectator


Colonialism: formation of  a society on foreign land;

subjugation of native people


Fanon

-    appropriation

-    performance/role

-    objectification = not a subject/person



Review of L. 23


Dark desires/dark continent

- Displacing desire / scape-goating

- Freud: women’s desire are unfathomable / unknown dark continent


Victorian period: 1837-1901

- Betty / Nora

- Cloud 9—1979

- Duty = country, Queen


1970’s feminism

- Essential vs. behavioral/performed identity

- Woman’s independent desire

- Demystification of sexuality


Prof. Lewis' glowing observation of ENGL 263: "This is a mature group of students.  They were attentive throughout the period, actively involved in the day’s reading/critical exercises, and seemed quite comfortable with the more participatory approaches to teaching and learning."


Review of L. 25


Nietzsche, The Birth of Tragedy


Apollonian


- Reason

- Art, light

- Head


Dionysian

- feeling

- ecstasy,

- dancing, narcotic

- body/heart

- intoxication/madness


Tragic Hero

- principle of individuation = suffering

- seeks unity with the world

- theater gives sense of unity through music


Portfolio Assignment




Review of Course Goals:


1) Understand the elements, social importance, and literary merit of drama from the Classical period to appx. the present




2) Investigate the relationship of violence to performance theory and drama in performance





3) Learn to write about drama from Western and non-Western traditions