European Romantic Movement

French Romanticism (romantisme)

started later than in Britain and Germany (1830s - 50s)
marked by the performance of Victor Hugo's drama Hernani (1830) which provoked a riot in the playhouse
incl. the poet Chénier, Hugo, Gautier, Nerval, Musset (author of the play Lorenzaccio), and the French-Swiss woman writer Germaine de Staël (1766 - 1817), whose Bildungsroman (educational novel, novel of maturation) set in Italy, Corinne (1807), influenced British and German writers, and who introduced German Romantics to French readers in On Germany (1810, De l'Allemange)
In France to declare allegiance with Romanticism meant affronting the conservative Classical tradition, and so it signified youthful rebellion and liberty.

French History overview:

Revolution	Literature
1776 American Revolution; 1778: France formally recognizes the fledgling U.S., leading to war with their old enemy Britain; 1783: Treaty of Paris restores French holdings in America, Africa, and India, but state coffers decimated by support of American Revolution	Rousseau, Social Contract (1762); Goethe, Sufferings of Young Werther (1774); T. Jefferson, Declaration of Independence (1776)
1789: Rebellion begins when National Assembly declares itself part of government, the Bastille is stormed, and peasants revolt	Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789); William Blake, Songs of Innocence
End of Old Order: God, monarchy, clergy, to be replaced by liberty, fraternity, equality
1791: King attempts to flee and is returned forcibly to Paris; war vs. Austria declared; food riots	O. de Gouges, Rights of Woman and Citizen, Thomas Paine, The Rights of Man
1792: Massacre of thousands of supposed Royalists; First Republic founded	M. Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)
1.1793: Louis XVI beheaded; France and England at War; 10. 1793: Marie Antoinette beheaded – Part of mass Terror , counter-revolution, and ensuing culture of paranoid surveillance War vs. Austria and Prussia; Briefly enacted some reforms (later revoked) such as divorce, product of civil marriage, abolition of slavery (Independence of Haiti)	Thomas Paine's exile, The Age of Reason (1792-95); Helen Maria Williams, Letters from France (1792-96); William Godwin, An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice (1791/93)
1794: Rule by Robespierre, Danton, and the Committee of Public Safety until 9th Thermidor (27 July) when R. is arrested, tried, and executed	Chénier, "When the somber slaughterhouse opens its caverns of death"
1795: Reopening of Christian churches; Dauphin (crown prince) dies in prison; dictatorship of Directorate	1796: F. Reynolds, Werter, premiers in London at Covent Garden
1799: Napoleon named First Consul
1803-1815: Napoleonic Wars ravage Europe, particularly today's Germany	1802: René by François-René de Chateaubriand imitates Werther 1808: Goethe, Faust I
1804: Napoleon crowns himself emperor; Napoleonic Code changes civil law
1814: Napoleon abdicates and is sent into exile; Louis XVIII takes the throne
1815: Napoleon returns to Paris for a victorious One Hundred Days; Battle of Waterloo: Allied (British [Wellington], Prussian, Austrian, Russian) army defeats Napoleon
	1818/19: M. Shelley, Frankenstein, E. T. A. Hoffmann, The Sandman
	1824: L. Beethoven, Symphony 9 (Ode to Joy) completed
1830: Three Glorious Days/July Revolution	1830: V. Hugo, Hernani announces the French Romantic movement
Eugene Delacroix, Liberty Leading the People, Louvre, Paris, France, oil on canvas, 1830
	1832: Goethe, Faust II
	1847: Lamartine's History of the Girondists (constitutional monarchists massacred in the Rev.) published
1848: Second Republic founded after the Revolution of	Hugo serves in the National Assembly and advocates free education and voting rights for all classes
1851: Louis Napoleon, the President of the Republic, declares himself Emperor Napoleon III, and	Hugo goes into exile in Belgium and then on islands along the English channel (Jersey and Guernsey)

André Chénier (1762 - 1794)

"When the somber slaughterhouse opens its caverns of death"

"happier days" (l. 24, = naive perspective)	"slaughterhouse" (l. 1, ironic perspective)
"shepherds, dogs, the other sheep, the whole farm" (l. 3), "The children" (l. 5), "The maidens with lovely complexions" (l. 6), "knots of ribbons and flowers" (l. 8)	"caverns of death" (l. 1), "this abyss" (l. 10), "neglect" (l. 12), "frightful lair" (l. 13) "the bloody hooks of the people's larder" (l. 15), "my withered soul" (l. 19), "all is a precipice" (l. 25) "tears of misfortune" (l. 25)

Victor Hugo (1802 - 85):

Parents supported the republic in the French Revolution
Father served in Napoleon's army in Spain
Preface to his play Cromwell (1827) announces the start of a new Romantic movement
Hunchback of Notre Dame (1831)
In 1833 begins the decades-long affair with an actress in one of his plays, Juliette Drouet
Guiseppe Verdi adapts Hernani into an opera, Ernani (1844)
Les Misèrables (1862)
The Art of Being a Grandfather (1877)

Alphonse de Lamartine (1790 - 1869)

The Village Bell

My mind (l. 1, naive view)	Death (l. 3 and 6, ironic view)
"child" (l. 1), "a soul" (l. 10) "melody" (l. 12) "plowmen" (l. 13) "hired mourners, a cold and banal escort" "horizon" (l. 21) "brambles of life" (l. 29)	"vault" (l. 4), "stone" (l. 10) "tomb" (l. 12, 22) "my bier" (l. 13) "my sleeping body" (l. 17) "a prison" (l. 24) "furthest reaches of heaven!" (l. 30)

German Romanticisms

Storm and Stress (Sturm und Drang), 1767-85

Somewhat synonymous with the ‘Age of Sensibility’ that happened in England
Goethe, The Sufferings of Young Werther (1774)
youthful sentiment and rebellion, intense feeling and emotion
writers inspired by Klopstock
"The artistic credo of the Strum und Drang was also basically that of alter romanticism. The young titans rebelled against the neoclassical canon of good taste, based on rules. Against these rule they championed originality, native genius, organic growth rather than mechanical regularity; they wanted free scope for the imagination and feelings; they showed enthusiasm for the 'interesting,' the 'picturesque,' the rustic, the irregular, the rugged, the sublime as opposed to the 'beautiful' (to which the eighteenth century assigned the attributes of regularity, symmetry, balance, correct size, and polish. The Sturm und Drang ideal of literary diction approximated that which Wordsworth later championed: the language of every day, the homely realism of the common man, the loose syntax of natural speech" (Steinhauer 106).

J. W. v. Goethe "Little Rose on the Heath" (1779/1789; Heidenröslein), p. 5

a sun rose heath in Germany

Here are 3 alternate translations of "Heidenröslein"
Franz Schubert (1797 - 1828) put this poem to music (D 257, Op. 3, N. 3) in 1815; see a performance on You Tube here
This song and others like it could also be listened to via our library's new online Classical Music Library
Starting with the second stanza, this poem has lines that end with rhyming combination of assonance and consonance, the musical sound of combinations of words; I have marked these according to abc:

Stanza II

Orig.	Sounds	Highlighted trans.	My trans.
Knabe sprach: „Ich breche dich, (a): Röslein auf der Heiden.“ (b)	The assonant (a) sounds in the second stanza are soft, like the sh in shoot, and the i sounds like the naughty word that also starts with sh.	prick or break you Röslein is a diminutive form of the word for rose, just as Fräulein evokes the image of "little woman," or kleine Frau. Drysen translates Röslein as "Rosie, rosie, rosy-red, In the heath the rosie;" Bowring as "Rosebud, rosebud, rosebud red, Heathrose fair and tender!; and Zeydel as "Rosebud, little rosebud red, Rosebud in the heather."	And the wild boy spoke: I will break you, Little Rose on the Heath." Little rose said: defended itself and pricked him, Though neither cry nor moan brought help, It just had to suffer. Little rose, little rose, little red rose, Little red rose on the heath.
Röslein sprach: „Ich steche dich, (a): Daß du ewig denkst an mich, (a): me Und ich will’s nicht leiden.“ (b) Röslein, Röslein, Röslein rot, (c) Röslein auf der Heiden. (b)

Stanza III

Orig.	Sounds	Highlighted trans.
Und der wilde Knabe brach (a): ´s Röslein auf der Heiden. (b) Röslein wehrte sich und stach, (a) Half ihm doch kein Weh und Ach, (a) Mußt es eben leiden. (b) Röslein, Röslein, Röslein rot, (c) Röslein auf der Heiden. (b)	The consonant sounds in the third stanza are rougher and more clipped, almost like a k, but with some air that follows the end, like the end of the word Czech The assonant sounds resemble aw in awful:	Applebaum translates this as word as "plucked," but it also means "broke" Oh

"Elf King" (1782; Erlkönig)

From a fresco by Carl Gottlieb Peschel

F. Schubert also put this song to music in 1815 (D 328, Op. 1), and a video on You Tube is available here
Each stanza rhymes according to an aabb rhyme scheme

STANZA VI:

The son speaks: "Mein Vater, mein Vater, und siehst du nicht dort (a): there
Erlkönigs Töchter am düstern Ort?" — (a): place, both Os pronounced like the o in dork

The father speaks: "Mein Sohn, mein Sohn, ich seh es genau: (b): exactly
Es scheinen die alten Weiden so grau. (b): gray, both vowels pronounced like the ow in how

Here is an alternate translation of "Erlkönig"

The Life of Friedrich Schiller (1759-1805)

Schiller had humble beginnings:

He was born in Marbach in Baden-Württemberg to a military surgeon, Johann Kaspar, himself son of a baker (as was his wife, Elisabeth Dorothea [Dorle]). His father wrote in his spare time, and sent his son went to a very good school. The duke of Württemberg sent Schiller away to military school against the wishes of his parents to study in nearby Stuttgart, first law and then military surgery.

In 1776, the year of the American Revolution, he published his first poem (Evening). During this period he was also reading widely, particularly the works of Storm and Stress (Goethe) & all of Shakespeare’s works. He also engaged with Rousseau & began work on The Robbers. In 1780 he became a military surgeon, even though a year later his famous play The Robbers was published anonymously.

The poem, "The Magnitude of the World" (Die Größe der Welt), was written in 1780 or 1781. In the third stanza, "realm" could also be translated as "kingdom," since the German word Reich means kingdom or even empire. Note that at the end of the third stanza, four words in German become nine in English.

In 1782 The Robbers was produced in Mannheim and In response to the play, young men formed robber bands. Duke Karl Eugen forbade Schiller to write dramas or anything like that and Schiller had to flee from Stuttgart for good. In 1782/83 he began to work on Intrigue and Love (Kabale und Liebe) and Don Carlos but caught malaria in the fall. Such serious problems with his health plagued Schiller most of his life.

The director of the theater in Mannheim, Wolfgang Heribert von Dalberg (1750-1806) offered Schiller the role of house playwright/dramaturge (Theaterdichter). Dalberg was counting on the success of plays like The Robbers to continue.

In 1784 August Wilhelm Iffland (who acted the part of Franz Moor in The Robbers) retitled Luise Millerin as Intrigue and Love and produced it along with Schiller’s “republican play,” Fiesko. In 1787, the year Don Carlos is published in its entirety and performed, Schiller goes to Weimar, where he becomes acquainted with the linguist and philosopher Herder and the great German writer Wieland.

A year later (1788), Schiller meets Goethe for the first time. The next three years are busy for him: he becomes Professor in Jena; marries Charlotte von Lengefeld; and becomes sick with TB.

In 1792 becomes honorary citizen of the French Republic on account of The Robbers and also probably DC, since it came out so strongly against the Church and tyranny and in favor of rebellion. During the last part of his life, Schiller’s relationship with Goethe played a major role. In 1797 they started corresponding, and in 1799 he came to live in Weimar to be near Goethe and his theatre.

As with the British Romantics in the Lake District (Wordsworth and Coleridge), this proximity sparked even more creativity. In 1800 and 1801 he finished two more dramas, Maria Stuart, and Maid of Orleans. Schiller’s contributions to life and letters did not go unnoticed. In 1802 he entered the nobility and became Friedrich von Schiller. In German, as in French, of (in that case ‘de’) indicates nobility.

In 1805, Schiller died of severe lung infection. His skull was kept in the Anna-Amalie Library, where Goethe often borrowed it for study. The rest of his body was interred in Weimar, and Goethe asked to be buried next to him.

Weimar Classicism (Weimarer Klassik), 1786 - ca. 1805/32

Goethe, Faust I

Early Romanticism (Frühromantik), 1795-1804

Friedrich Hölderlin (1770 - 1843)

Hölderlin was considered a young genius. Then poor Hölderlin (pronounced hewl-dare-lean) spent the last 35 years of his life locked in a tower in Tübingen, Germany owing to madness, prob. schizophrenia.

“Hyperion's Song of Destiny" (1799; Hyperions Schicksalslied), p. 55

This poem is from an eponymous novel, Hyperion or the Hermit in Greece. It demonstrates the concept of peripeteia, the Greek word for “recognition," wherein the tragic hero recognizes a turning of his fate and then precedes change in circumstances (reversal).

The volta or moment of peripetieia/recognition of the lyrical voice occurs between the second and third stanzas.

An alternate translation of the first line of the third stanza would be "It is given us."

Hölderlin's poetry has much in common with German TRANSCENDENTAL PHILOSOPHY, which is also called Idealism because it envisions a dialectical (Fichte, Hegel) movement toward an absolute state of being. The three stanzas of "Hyperion" can also be read in a dialectical fashion:

Stanza 1 = THESIS: You all (plural) "walk up there in the light" (l.1).

Stanza 2 = ANTITHESIS: The "heavenly ones breathe" and "Gaze in tranquil, / Eternal clarity" (l. 8, 14-15).

Stanza 3 = SYNTHESIS or hypothesis: We "find rest nowhere."

"When I was a boy," (1799) p. 57

The third line of the first stanza should read: "From the shouting and the rods of people," plural, as in being beaten and whipped by people.

The first line of the second stanza uses the informal form of you (du, instead of Sie).

I prefer Constantine's translation of this poem, particularly the penultimate stanza:

Orig.	Constantine	Applebaum
Mich erzog der Wohllaut Des säuselnden Hains Und lieben lernt' ich Unter den Blumen.	Trees were my teachers Melodious trees And I learned to love Among flowers.	I was raised by the euphony Of the rustling grove, And I learned to love Amid the flowers.

According to the OED, euphony means:

"a. The quality of having a pleasant sound; the pleasing effect of sounds free from harshness: chiefly with reference to combinations of words in sentences, or of phonetic elements in spoken words. b. In recent philological use often: The tendency to greater ease of pronunciation, as shown in those combinatory phonetic changes formerly ascribed to an endeavour after a pleasing acoustic effect."

"Halfway through Life" (1803; Hälfte des Lebens)

could also be translated as The Half of Life
Greek basis for style of meter

Stanza I:

1    Mit gelben Birnen hänget
      Und voll mit wilden Rosen
3    Das Land in den See,
      Ihr holden Schwäne,
5    Und trunken von Küssen
     Tunkt ihr das Haupt
7    Ins heilignüchterne Wasser.

Applebaum translates the adjective "heilignüchtern" as "sacred sober water." Heilig also means holy, as in the Holy Roman Empire (Heiliges Römisches Reich). Nüchtern can have many meanings in English and German. Applebaum's translation preserves the unique combination of assonance and consonance of Hölderlin in German, and the musical sound of combinations of words.

Stanza II:

      Weh mir, wo nehm ich, wenn
      Es Winter ist, die Blumen, und wo
10    Den Sonnenschein,
       Und Schatten der Erde?
       Die Mauern stehn
       Sprachlos und kalt, im Winde
14    Klirren die Fahnen.

Here the sound of W, which resembles the English V, dominates as a consonant sound, and the soft sound of Sch (like the English shhh!) contrasts with the clipped consants of Klirr and Fahnen (just like English).

Novalis (1772 - 1801; Friedrich Hardenberg)

Novalis converted to Catholicism
Listened to Schiller's lectures at Jena
He died very young from t.b. and perhaps another chronic lung infection

"Must the morning always return?" is the second poem from Hymns to the Night (1800; Hymnen an die Nacht)

Orig.

Highlighted trans.

Muß immer der Morgen wiederkommen?
Endet nie des Irdischen Gewalt? 2
Unselige Geschäftigkeit verzehrt
den himmlischen Anflug der Nacht. 4
Wird nie der Liebe geheimes Opfer ewig brennen? 6
Zugemessen ward dem Lichte
seine Zeit und dem Wachen 8
Aber zeitlos und raumlos
Ist der Nacht Herrschaft, 10
Ewig ist die Dauer des Schlafs.

Heiliger Schlaf! 12
Beglücke zu selten nicht
Der Nacht Geweihte 14
In diesem irdischen Tagewerk.
Nur die Toren verkennen dich, 16
und wissen von keinem Schlafe,
Als dem Schatten, 18
Den du in jener Dämmerung
Der wahrhaften Nacht 20
Mitleidig auf uns wirfst.
Sie fühlen dich nicht 22
In der goldenen Flut der Trauben,
In des Mandelbaums 24
Wunderöl,
Und dem braunen Safte des Mohnes. 26
Sie wissen nicht,
Daß du es bist,
Der des zarten Mädchens
Busen umschwebt,
Und zum Himmel den Schooss macht;
Ahnen nicht,
Daß aus alten Geschichten
Du himmelöffnend entgegentrittst,
Und den Schlüssel trägst
Zu den Wohnungen der Seligen,
Unendlicher Geheimnisse
Schweigender Bote.

l. 2: violence

no apparent rhyme scheme here, but the long sound of the a rhymes in l. 2, 4, 8, and 11

The second stanza has no apparent rhyme schemes either, although many lines end with "nicht," or not, a negation

l. 19 = familiar you

l. 22: They do not feel you

l. 25 = literally wonder oil

l. 27: They do not know

They are unaware

High Romanticism (Hochromantik), ca. 1804-15

E. T. A. Hoffmann, The Sandman

Late Romanticism (Spätromantik), ca. 1830-48

Joseph Freiherr (Baron) von Eichendorff (1788-1857)

"Longing" (111) is titled "Sehnsucht" in German, which also means yearning, desire, aspiration, craving, or yen. This is the same title as Schiller's poem, "Longing" (43).

Annette von Droste-Hülshoff (1797 - 1848)

her image used to be on the 20 DM bill
one of the few women in the German literary canon
like Emily Dickinson, she never married

"In the Moss" (1841)

Stanza II: The "lime tree" referred to in l. 7 is a linden tree in German. Lime tree is another English translation for linden tree.

Stanza III: Note the romantic irony here: "I almost felt as if I had already fallen asleep" (l. 18). Is the speaker truly awake now, or dreaming? Which view--the waking one or the dreaming one--is the true perspective?

This doubt about what is real returns in the final stanza, and together, stanzas I - III and the last one constitute a kind of frame narrative around the rest of the poem:

" Ich fuhr empor und schüttelte mich dann, 43
Wie einer, der dem Scheintod erst entrann,

Und taumelte entlang die dunklen Hage, 45

Noch immer zweifelnd, ob der Stern am Rain 47
Sei wirklich meiner Schlummerlampe Schein
Oder das ew'ge Licht am Sarkophage" 49(131).

I jumped up and shook myself then (a)

Like someone who has just escaped a cataleptic fit [literally: apparent death], (a)
And dashed along the dark boundary hedges, (b)

Still in doubt whether the star by the ridge on the field (c)

Was really the glow from my bedside lamp (c)

Or the eternal light by the sarcophagus. (b)

The rhyme scheme for the final stanza--and all of the stanzas--is aabccb

Heinrich Heine (pronounced high-nuh), 1797 - 1856

German-Jewish writer
Suspended from University of Göttingen, and went to Berlin, where he heard lectures by Hegel
Lived in Paris
Wrote The Romantic School (1836)

"I don't know what it may signify" (1824)

Alt. trans. on p. 87 of Poems of Heinrich Heine
U.S. writer Longfellow also translated it as "The Lorelei" on p. 50 of Poems of Places
abab rhyme scheme
James Thomson offers a liberal translation on p. 85 of Poems selected from Heinrich Heine
refers to ancient legend of the Lorelei/Loreley, sirens who sat on a rock in the middle of the Rhine river and lured men to their deaths
set to music by Friedrich Silcher (1789- 1860), this has become a popular folk song
The Classical composer Liszt adapted Silcher's work further for piano

Stanza IV:

German orig.	Highlighted translation
Sie kämmt es mit goldenem Kamme (a) Und singt ein Lied dabei; (b) Das hat eine wundersame, (a) Gewaltige Melodei. (b)	Translated as "powerful" (Applebaum, Frank, and Longfellow), "magical" (Thomson) and "strong" (Untermeyer), gewaltig also means violent

"Morphine" (1849/51)

Written in blank iambic pentameter

Ex. of post-Romantic irony: two states of being are being compared (sleep and death), and one (death) comes out more favorably than the other

German orig.

Highlighted alliterations and consonance

Groß ist die Ähnlichkeit der beiden schönen
Jünglingsgestalten, ob der eine gleich 2
Viel blässer als der andre, auch viel strenger,
Fast möcht ich sagen viel vornehmer aussieht 4
Als jener andre, welcher mich vertraulich
In seine Arme schloß - Wie lieblich sanft 6
War dann sein Lächeln und sein Blick wie selig!
Dann mocht es wohl geschehn, daß seines Hauptes 8
Mohnblumenkranz auch meine Stirn berührte
Und seltsam duftend allen Schmerz verscheuchte 10
Aus meiner Seel - Doch solche Linderung,
Sie dauert kurze Zeit; genesen gänzlich 12
Kann ich nur dann, wenn seine Fackel senkt
Der andre Bruder, der so ernst und bleich. - 14
Gut ist der Schlaf, der Tod ist besser - freilich
Das beste wäre, nie geboren sein. 16

handsome
alike (not translated in poem)
more severe (shtr sound)
looks (aussieht = soft s + s/z sound: ows - zeeht)
intimately (Vertrauen = trust)
Clasped
his (sein) blissful (seling) -- both with s/z sound
have been
forehead
pain
soul (last syllable dropped from Seele), such (solche)
Sie = it (relief), genesen = to recover
lowers
so = so, bleich = pale
sleep

Goethe, Faust II

Works Cited

Applebaum, Stanley, ed. and trans. Great German Poems of the Romantic Era. Mineoloa: Dover, 1995. Print.

Droste-Hülshoff, A. v. "In the Moss." Trans. Stanley Applebaum. Great German Poems of the Romantic Era. Mineoloa: Dover, 1995. 130 -33.

Goethe, Johann W. v. "Elf King." Trans. Stanley Applebaum. Great German Poems of the Romantic Era. Mineoloa: Dover, 1995. 16 - 19. Print.

- - -. "Little Rose on the Heath." Trans. Stanley Applebaum. Great German Poems of the Romantic Era. Mineoloa: Dover, 1995. 4 - 5. Print.

Heine, Heinrich. "Ich weiß nicht, was soll es bedeuten." Poems of Heinrich Heine. Trans. Louis Untermeyer. Henry Holt, 1917. 87-8. Print.

- - -. "Ich weiß nicht, was soll es bedeuten." Die Lorelei. Trans. Frank. 1998. <http://ingeb.org/Lieder/ichweiss.html> Accessed Feb. 2010. Web.

- - -. "Ich weiß nicht, was soll es bedeuten." Trans James Thomson. W. Scott, 1887. 87. <http://books.google.com/books?id=wJsTAAAAQAAJ&dq=james%20thomson%20I%20know%20not%20what%20evil&client=firefox-a&pg=PA85#v=onepage&q=james%20thomson%20I%20know%20not%20what%20evil&f=false> Web. Accessed Feb. 2010.

- - -. "I don't know what it may signify." Trans. Stanley Applebaum. Great German Poems of the Romantic Era. Mineoloa: Dover, 1995. 140 - 43. Print.

- - -. "The Lorelei." Poems of Places. Trans. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. BiblioBazaar, LLC, 2009. <http://books.google.com/books?id=lHK5853QuUcC&pg=PA50&lpg=PA50&dq=longfellow+i+know+not+whence+it+rises&source=bl&ots=Nox_gc56IM&sig=j-etBG1SFpls6TJeH_16PxAqxvg&hl=en&ei=Rs-KS9mvF8uztgfkjpS_Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false> Web. Accessed Feb. 2010

Hölderlin, Freidrich. "Hyperion's Song of Destiny." Trans. Stanley Applebaum. Great German Poems of the Romantic Era. Mineoloa: Dover, 1995. 54-5. Print.

- - -. "When I was a boy." Trans. David Constantine. Poems by Friedrich Hölderlin.
Newcastle upon Tyne, Bloodaxe Books, 1996. <http://www.jbeilharz.de/hoelderlin/fh.html> Accessed Feb. 2010. Web.

Novalis. "Must the morning always return?" rans. Stanley Applebaum. Great German Poems of the Romantic Era. Mineoloa: Dover, 1995. 60-1.

Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2002. Web.

Schiller, Friedrich von. "The Magnitude of the World." Trans. Stanley Applebaum. Great German Poems of the Romantic Era. Mineoloa: Dover, 1995. 26 - 27.

Steinhauer, Harry. "Afterword." The Sufferings of Young Werther. NY: Norton, 1970. 101-26. Print

W. C. Nielsen, last updated 24 Feb. 2010